Racial segregation and collaboration

In a society dominated by white supremacy and racial disintegration jazz served as a medium which provided the Black community with a unifying music genre in which African American artists were empowered with the freedom of cultural self-expression. Jazz emerged from the social constraints imposed upon the black community by discrimination and segregation as a liberating instrument in creating their distinct cultural tradition. Societal oppression and economic disadvantage seemed to vanish in the music, allowing for social freedoms that were previously denied to the African American community. However, as Miles states in his autobiography, the difficulties that Black artists had to face remained evident and undeniably obvious. Despite the safe zone of free expression, the jazz scene experienced many of the tensions induced by discrimination and racial intolerance. As miles states, white appropriation, in which white artists attempt to take claim of the creations of black talent, coupled with their advantaged societal position in a white supremacist society, made it increasingly difficult for black jazz artists to make a living or rise to popularity (Davis 54).

Black artists did not only experience an opposition within the jazz scene by interracial competition with white artists enjoying a more advantageous societal position. As some rose to popularity, financial independence and social recognition for their unmatched talent, fractions among the white population engaged in jealousy driven racism (Davis 67). Jazz was seen as an invasion by Black people, which fueled further racial tensions (Davis 67). Disapproval of Black Jazz musicians bathing in financial success, surrounded by White women and popularity was commonly experienced by Black artists (Davis 67). In addition, the inability of Black artists to independently reach fame during the early stages of jazz influenced by racial discrimination and intolerance created a dependency of Black musicians on white agents and club owners as facilitators of their musical careers (Travis).

The forced racial integration based on the collaboration between white business men and black artists in promoting jazz, however, provided jazz with the necessary means to reach unprecedented fame during the 20s and 30s, which ultimately allowed jazz to function as an instrument for blacks in obtaining social recognition, financial independence and - at least to some extent- racial equality. Promotion of jazz, a predominantly African-American cultural production by famous nightclubs featuring white audiences was what allowed jazz to become the popular music genre in America. In that respect the collaboration between whites and blacks and the associated success allowed Jazz to serve as a catalyst and an opportunity for Black artists to transcend the constraints of impaired economic vertical mobility and boundaries of racial and social segregation.

Contradicting this notion stands the counter-argument that the relationship between black artists and white agents or club owners was polarized in favor of white supremacists and infused with negative vibes relating the collaboration to metaphors such as the plantation system (Travis). Rather than mutual dependency and benefit, the relationship between white club owners and black artists was depicted as a system of exploitation of black talent (Travis). However, if it wasn’t for this collaboration, jazz would have never risen to the fame which is synonymous with power and influence and thus not have the positive effect on the Black community.  

The interesting aspect is the racial inconsistency and controversy surrounding jazz. The emergence of jazz was fueled by discrimination and segregation as it provided the Black community with the freedom of cultural expression; however, what ultimately catapulted jazz to popularity was the collaboration of these racially separate subpopulations economically and musically within a socially deeply segregated society. Jazz was born out of discrimination but succeeded to alleviate the constraints that the segregated social setting in America fueling its emergence imposed on it. Jazz and art are often under-appreciated for their purely aesthetic value neglecting its deeper meaning. Jazz and art in general have served as a remedy from social and racial inequality. It provided a medium in which free expression and personal freedom did not seem alienated by white supremacy. Since jazz is based on improvisational creation which is synonymous to self-dialogue, this music genre provided the foundation for the freedom of self-expression and the freedom of cultural creation that was desperately needed by the Black community in its struggle toward racial equality (Stewart). I guess what makes this argument interesting is the irony about how racial segregation promoted the emergence of jazz as a unifying Black cultural medium, while racial collaboration within the jazz scene empowered jazz to alleviate the constraints of the social construct of discrimination under which it was created.

References

“Miles Davis: Autobiography”. Miles Davis and Quincey Toupe. Simon & Schuster. 1990

 “The Autobiography of Black Jazz”. Travis, D. J. Chicago IL: The Urban Research Institute, Inc. 1983

“Black Studies 14 Lectures”. Professor Stewart. UCSB. 2015

The Synergism of intrinsic musical talent and external influences

San Juan Hill was a community characterized by a duality between cultural potential and ethnic disintegration. The cultural diversity within the predominantly African-American community was infused with racial tension leading to various outbursts of violence (Kelley, 16). The diverse ethnic and cultural groups of San Juan Hill were partitioned into sub-populations under the influence of social constraints imposed by racial disintegration. The racial divide was amplified by a lack of economic potential and populous housing conditions which forcefully condensed these opposing subpopulations into a limited living space, thereby fueling the racial tensions felt within the community. Economic struggle, poverty and drug affiliated crime involvement had socially deteriorating effects on the community and facilitated frustration and desperation driven race conflicts (Kelley 19, 23). In contrast the cultural diversity of San Juan Hill fostered an environment enabling immense cultural exchange. Despite the racial tensions induced by cultural differences and economic disparity, the diversity of San Juan Hill was granted a medium which allowed for cross-cultural integration in the form of music and art. Contrary to the negative image portrayed of San Juan Hill, its vibrant music scene and prominent jazz culture fueled enormous cultural exchange (Kelley 18). The residents of San Juan Hill living in the societal duality between diversity-induced violence, racism, and economic disparity contrasting immense potential of cross cultural integration granted by the art forms, were often polarized towards one of these opposing scenes. Thelonious Monk, however, managed to nurture from the hardships he faced growing up within his community, strengthening his personality, which ultimately allowed him “to stay true to his own musical vision despite disparaging critics and musicians” (Kelley 37).

After moving to New York from rural North Caroline, Barbara Monk, Thelonious’ mother managed to keep her son from the streets by emphasizing the concepts of tolerance, virtue and discipline (Kelley 22). Her strong affiliation with the Baptist church influenced Monk’s education further and exposed him and his siblings to the rhythms of sacred music and hymns (Kelley 27). In addition to the educational values implemented by his mother, Monk’s involvement with the Columbus Hill Community Center significantly influenced his development. The Columbus Hill Community Center provided various social services including musical training and constituted “the true center of social life for Black youth in the neighborhood”, shielding them from the racial tensions and violence prevailing in the streets (Kelley 25). Similar to the Columbus community center functioning as a refuge in escaping the harsh reality of the streets, cultural hubs in Leimert Park fostered an environment in which free expression, cultural exchange and an anti-violence ideology was promoted. The “Coffee House” and “World Stage” of Leimert Park functioned similarly to the Columbus Hill Community Center by creating an alternative to the violence ridden reality of disintegration in that they promoted peaceful coexistence as well as providing a unifying communal institution.

However, what ultimately polarized Monk towards pursuing a musical career and sharing his musical genius with the world cannot be entirely attributed to his mother’s education or the influences of the community center. The most important impulse sparking his passion for music and his decision to pursue a career in jazz was the rich enthusiasm that lingered in the air of San Juan Hill’s music culture. San Juan Hill boasted the largest concentration of black musicians in the city of New York and music was persistently heard throughout the hallways of apartment complexes and the streets (Kelley 20). The cultural diversity constituting the social setting in San Juan Hill enabled the cross-cultural integration of European and African-American music complemented by influences from musical traditions ranging to the Caribbean and the West Indies. The vast diversity of cultural input that was felt in the music scene in New York supports the analogy of Jazz being New York. People submerged in the cultural and societal setting of New York experienced many of the challenges that characterized the jazz scene: Racial tensions and competition fueled by the ideology of segregation and intolerance. The diversity of New York with the mass cultural exchange that was enforced by the condensed living space was similar to the accelerated racial integration felt in the jazz community as jazz rose to national popularity. Both New York and the Jazz scene similarly overcame these challenges by creating a cultural space that remains unmatched in its diversity and complexity.  The cultural diversity of New York created a vibrant and enthusiastic cultural environment similar to the liveliness of artistic innovation that is portrayed in Jazz. This similarity between the jazz culture and New York produced a viable environment for the development of Monk’s musical genius. Intrinsic musical talent coupled with the nurturing external influences of a music infused culture in a vibrant and diverse setting produced a powerful synergistic effect that shaped the success of Thelonious Monk’s career as a jazz musician.  

References:

“Thelonious Monk: The Life and Times of an American Original”. Robin Kelley

“Leimert Park: A Documentary Film” J. Lindsay

Race and Swing

The racial discourse of the Swing Era was characterized by an antagonistic ambivalent relationship between racial tensions and socio-economic integration. Several aspects of 1930s America contributed to creating a setting which allowed Swing to function as an instrument in diminishing and liberating racial segregation, promoting cultural integration and shaping the formation of popular American culture. Contrary to this progressive effect that the Swing era had on transcending racial and class boundaries, the negative economic circumstances inflicted on society during the Swing Era by the Great Depression exacerbated racial tensions in the music business and society at large by creating heightened competition.

The adverse effects of enhanced competition created by the economic conditions during the Great depression were especially felt in the music business. A decreased economic base to draw from coupled with the end of the prohibition sent many musicians into unemployment. Crashing markets and declining economic opportunities made it increasingly difficult to make a living as a musician. During these times America experienced a heightened antagonism between white and black music artists. Racial tensions which were created under these conditions were not limited to the music business but expanded to all levels of society and economic sectors. The heightened competition created an uneven playing field between black and white musicians (The Swing Era). Artists stemming from privileged white middle-class back-rounds enjoyed broad acceptance by the American public, including in the racially more intolerant south, easier work conditions, higher compensation, and were generally not “forced to suffer from indignities of racism”, that even the most talented  African American musician could not evade (Gioia 133). Despite the restraints imposed on Black artists, their superior talent did not go unnoticed.  White jazz productions possessed “no vitality” and in that respect were inferior to black music, which was in the ascendant since the beginning of the swing era (Swing Changes 53). Simply put, what compensated black musicians for their opportunistic disadvantage due to their ethnic origins was their incredible talent (Swing Changes).

Competition creating racial tension was not only fueled by the economic difficulties at the time but also by the phenomena of Jazz Capitalism (Stewart). Increasing economic opportunity led to an increase in the number of white artists infiltrating the predominantly African American cultural creating of jazz and Swing (Stewart). A major contributor to the concept of Jazz Capitalism was the invention of the radio. This technological innovation induced a rapid geographical spread of music which transformed swing into a paradigm for popular music in America (Gioia 135, Swing Changes 54). More and more white musicians tapped in on the potential for economic profit which accompanied the transformation of swing from a predominantly black cultural creation into becoming the popular music of America. Jazz Capitalism led to the emergence of swing in a corporate setting and therefore required music artists to collaborate with talent agents, many of which were white and raised in privileged middle-class families, in order to realize their ambitions (Gioia 128).

 Contrary to the disintegration and creation of racial tension induced by economic transformations, the Swing era also permeabilized racial and class boundaries (Swing Changes 73). The harsh economic conditions of the Great Depression together with the corporate setting that the music industry found itself in during the Swing Era created a mutual dependency between white producers or talent agents and music artists thereby setting the stage for increased racial integration (Swing Changes 73). During the 1930s Swing “challenged the ironclad rigidity of the Depression-era racial segregation, crediting blacks with unique powers of spontaneous artistic creativity” (Swing Changes 53). Despite harsh economic conditions, the political and social landscape of 1930s America was introduced to left-leaning ideologies, American exceptionalism, freedom of expression and a domain of ethnic pluralism and socioeconomic opportunity (Swing Changes 73). This enabled Swing which “was in a fundamental sense an African American music” to become the American culture of choice. Interracial collaborations among musicians or between talent agents and music artists created an intertwining of cultures which was epitomized by the interactive nature of swing that created a bond between white dance audiences and black musicians. However, the infusion of mainstream America with black culture created a discourse between admiration of cultural creation and the threat of an emerging black population endangering personal socioeconomic standing within society. (Swing Changes 54) Nevertheless the Swing Era offered a major contribution to the development of establishing racial equality by exposing and intertwining mainstream white America with the beautiful and popular artistic creation of Jazz and Swing, which originated from African American culture and tradition. 

Blog 2

Chicago: The Jazz Capitol of the 1920s

“One of the supreme ironies of the history of New Orleans jazz, [where it originated], is that so much of it took place in Chicago” (Gioia 43). Chicago did not only make an unparalleled contribution to the evolution of jazz in absolute terms but it immediately follows the story line of jazz development with respect its chronological order. By the 1920s the jazz center had shifted from New Orleans to Chicago where many former New Orleans jazz legends continued their legacy far away from their native soil and transformed Chicago into the hub of contemporary and forward-looking jazz (Gioia 43).

During the Great migration between 1916 and 1919 nearly half a million African Americans left the South to seek more tolerant communities in the North, such as Chicago. This vast population shift encompassed the whole spectrum of society ranging from doctors, lawyers and merchants to manual laborers and musicians all of which shared the common ambition to seek a better life in cities that provided a larger economic base to draw from. Greater economic vertical mobility and opportunistic financial stability were among the driving factors in the creation of the New Orleans jazz diaspora and its success in Chicago (Stewart). The closure of the Storyville red light district in 1917 provided the necessary contrast of the discrepancy in economic opportunity between Chicago and New Orleans.  For this reason many of the New Orleans Jazz legends migrated to Chicago searching for increased personal freedom and tolerance which provided hope for long-desired horizontal racial integration within a multi-cultural society. The large metropolitan setting of Chicago delivered a more tolerant white audience, which was more receptive of African American jazz, allowing jazz musicians to be seen as serious cultural performers while acknowledging the cultural value of jazz in vitalizing communities and allowing jazz artists to live the romantic notion of self-expression which many of them were deprived of in the racially divided south. The mass culture present in Chicago became in the hands of black artists a way of turning African American vulnerability and dependence on mainstream society into a demand for respect (Cohen 156).

The appeal of the Great Migration during which jazz musicians gravitated toward Chicago was amplified by the social setting characterized by a more progressive society and economic opportunity. In addition to increased racial tolerance and a greater audience Chicago was one of the few cities that managed to maintain a vibrant nightlife throughout the years of Prohibition. Organized crime and mobsters collaborated with politicians to ensure that the Prohibition did not jeopardize the lucrative business of night clubs and dance halls in the “wet city” (Cohen 155). Furthermore the zoning ordinances in Chicago which separated the white middle class neighborhoods from the “vice district” managed to avoid an uproar of the former against the pulsating social scene, which was inevitable for the success of jazz in Chicago (Cohen 155). The indirect support for jazz through organized crime by creating the essential atmosphere of enthusiasm for celebration and music paired with direct contracting of jazz musicians to play at their night clubs catapulted jazz over interracial boundaries. White audiences were listening to black artists perform while white jazz artists were inspired and collaborated with black jazz artist from the New Orleans school of jazz (The Chicagoans).

The coincidence of the invention of the radio and the migration of many of the most prominent jazz musicians to the city of Chicago created a setting that projected jazz to unparalleled fame and popularity, thereby facilitating the emergence of Chicago’s reputation as being the jazz capitol of the 20s (Cohen 155). Jazz legends such as Louis Armstrong returned to Chicago in 1925. Leaving behind the Henderson group in New York, Armstrong infused the jazz culture with his novel improvisational style of the soloist which diverged from the ensemble improvisation style of the classic New Orleans style (Cohen 156; Gioia 57, 60). Some of greatest jazz recordings of all time were produced in Chicago in a collaboration between Armstrong and Earl Hines who was “responsible for pushing the jazz piano beyond limiting horizontal structures of ragtime and into a more versatile and linear approach” (Gioia 61). Other significant figures of the Chicago jazz scene included Jimmy Noone who worked together with Hines on the famous Apex Club recordings producing “crisp clarinet-piano dialogues [which] would stand unsurpassed until Benny Goodman and Teddy Wilson” (Gioia 62). The racially diverse jazz culture of Chicago also included several white jazz musicians and bands that, inspired by the New Orleans legends, contributed their own unique style. The Austin High School Gang or Leon ‘Bix’ Beiderbecke expanded the diversity of jazz by emphasizing a “self-expressed, romantic, anything-goes approach which ignored the unwritten laws and precepts of the New Orleans style” (The Chicagoans 159).

The interracial mixture and diverse cultural setting of Chicago created its own unique style which carried on too influence future generations of musicians throughout the entire nation. The divergence of improvisation to a soloist centered approach was a novel element in jazz as the New Orleans style was built upon ensemble improvisation (Gioia 57, 60). For the first time in history the jazz was “pure and simple, freed from both the shadow of ragtime and the dictates of dance music” (Gioia 63).  The jazz created in Chicago was not just the music of a time and place - it was a timeless style of performance, a way of life, thus making it one of the most significant contributors to Jazz History and Chicago deserving of the title “Jazz Capitol of the 20’s” (Gioia 71).

Word count: 925

References:

T. Gioia “The History of Jazz”. Oxford University Press. Second Edition 2011

L. Cohen “Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939”. 

“The Chicagoans”

Commented on Chase Racich’s Blog

New Orleans: The Cultural Breeding Ground of Jazz Music

New Orleans in the nineteenth and twentieth century was one of the most vibrant and developed cities in the South. The incredible degree of syncretism allowed for vast cultural diversity and the birth of many hybrid art forms, one of which is Jazz. During the colonial ages Louisiana had been under Spanish and French rule before it was acquired by the United States during the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. The comingling of different cultures which was especially prominent in New Orleans formed the fertile environment for the creation of Jazz. The New Orleans native culture showed an unmatched fascination for celebration, festivals, parades and musical as well as performances of the arts in general.  The extraordinary passion for music together with the city’s enthusiastic relationship with music provided cultural tolerance towards hybrid art forms (Gioia 5).

Other reasons for why Jazz developed in New Orleans rather than other large North American cities, it its geographical location which created immense cultural diversity. New Orleans is located on the Mississippi constituted one of the major hubs for trade and migration. The trade networks extended to the Caribbean, South America and all the way to Africa creating a melting pot of cultures and goods that passed through the city. This geographically advantageous location created a flourishing economy as well as a prosperous, cosmopolitan environment that few cities sin the new world could match” (Gioia 27). Furthermore the presence of a significant Latin-catholic culture in New Orleans during the nineteenth century, which had experienced discrimination and oppression but had established its position within society, was more tolerant and accepting to influences of African culture and art forms created by cultural hybridization (Gioia 6).  This is underlined in “The history of Jazz” in which the author Ted Gioia states that “music of all types permeated New Orleans social life; whether high or low, imported or indigenous, it found a receptive audience in this cosmopolitan city” (Gioia 32).

Additionally, New Orleans offered a rich cultural mixture due several legislative measures which affected the way in which local minorities could express their indigenous cultures. This created a poly-ethnic melting pot of art and culture. The Black community in New Orleans was granted more freedom compared to those in many other cities in the South, which increased their confidence in expressing their own music forms. The jurisdiction in New Orleans provided laws that were more lenient regarding how slaves could achieve freedom. The fact that slaves were able to purchase their freedom based on an adjudicated contract created a greater population of “free” Afro-American people and strengthened the influence of African culture on forming New Orleans very own local music forms such as Jazz (Gioia 6). This tolerance toward African culture is further exemplified by the decision of the New Orleans city council in 1817 to establish an official site for slaves to perform their music and dances, while many other cities were working towards passing laws to ban any form of African music.

Lastly Creole population played a significant role in the evolution of Jazz in New Orleans. Originally creole was a term implemented by individuals of French or Spanish decent who were born in the Americas,  indicating their distinguished descent as the first settlers of the new world, thereby giving them a more prestigious societal standing. Eventually it evolved into a term referring to the descendants of interracial relationships between Blacks and Whites. This population enjoyed increased freedom and rights over the Black population and distinguished themselves from the black community by acquiring certain norms and behaviors which were prominent in the White culture in New Orleans.  When however, in 1894, the Louisiana legislative code No.111 passed the creole population was classified as equals of the Black underclass. This created an additional and almost forced blending of white and black culture thereby facilitating the cultural transcendence of music and creating a fertile environment for the development jazz music (Stewart).

When investigating the origin of Jazz the main cultural source that comes to mind is the Afro American influence. African elements such rhythm, musical plurality, improvisation as well as the blending of artist and audience are prominent features of Jazz. In addition the Creole influence helped shape jazz the way we know this musical genre today. Many creole musicians had acquired classical musical training emphasizing a more structured and less improvisational approach. After the Louisiana legislative code No.111 passed this population of “polished creole ensembles”   who had previously experienced extended rights and freedom now found themselves “forced to fight for work and assimilate with black bands” (Gioia 32). This blend of improvisational and rhythmic African tendencies coupled with structured musical education is what shaped New Orleans Jazz the way we know it today. What is often neglected is the influence of Mexican culture on early Jazz in New Orleans. In 1884 the Mexican government sent a military band to play at Cotton Exhibition in New Orleans. Many artists decided to stay and joined local bands or ensembles creating direct influence of Mexican musical culture on the New Orleans music scene. These Mexican musicians served as mentors to many Jazz legends such as Jerry Roll Morton (Johnson 226). Furthermore indirect influence of Mexican culture on the development of Jazz was provided by the introduction of certain instruments such as the woodwind instruments.

The interesting question that arises when investigating the origin of Jazz in New Orleans is which ethnicity or culture deserves credit for inventing this music genre. In my opinion no single culture deserves credit because Jazz would not be what it is today if it was not for the hybridization and integration of cultures in the poly-ethnic and multiracial environment provided by New Orleans. I agree that the Afro American influence played the predominant role in the evolution of Jazz. However, no matter how minute the influence of a specific culture is; if it was present and influential in the music scene in New Orleans when Jazz evolved it should be acknowledged and credited for its contribution. What makes New Orleans Jazz so unique is multicultural origin.  

Word Count: 1050

References:

“Jazz”, Scott Deveaux, Gary Giddins. W.W. Norton and Company, First Edition. 2009

“The History of Jazz”, Ted Gioia. Oxford University Press. Second Edition. 2011

“Sobre Las Olas’: A Mexican Genesis in Borderlands Jazz and the Legacy for Ethnic Studies”, Gaye Theresa Johnson, Comparative American Studies, Vol. 6 No. 3, September 2008, 225–240

Post 1

Test